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Title
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Some theoretical and methodological aspects of studies in human communication behavior / ETNOGRAFIA POLSKA 1975 t.19 z.2
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Description
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ETNOGRAFIA POLSKA 1975 t.19 z.2, s.139-148
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Creator
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Ciołek, Tadeusz Maciej
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Date
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1975
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Format
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application/pdf
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application/pdf
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Identifier
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oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:791
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Language
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ang.
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Publisher
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Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii PAN, Instytut Historii Kultury Materialnej PAN
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Relation
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oai:cyfrowaetnografia.pl:publication:860
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Text
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„Etnografia Polska", t. X I X z. 2
TADEUSZ MACIEJ
CIOŁEK
SOME T H E O R E T I C A L A N D M E T H O D O L O G I C A L ASPECTS
OF S T U D I E S I N H U M A N C O M M U N I C A T I O N A L B E H A V I O R
Most of the recent w o r k i n h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l behavior has
been concerned w i t h such aspects of face-to-face i n t e r a c t i o n as spacing,
o r i e n t a t i o n , gesture, posture, diffuse body movement, facial expression,
gaze, tone of voice, appearance and amount, rate and f l u e n c y of speech.
I t is w i t h these aspects here collectively r e f e r r e d t o as n o n v e r b a l aspects
of h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l behavior, that this r e v i e w w i l l be concerned.
The a i m of t h i s paper is to give a b r i e f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of: A ) sources
of contemporary
interest in nonverbal communication,
B ) main research
areas, C) main methodological
principles, D ) variety of research
stra
tegies and techniques. The r e v i e w w i l l refer to several books and papers,
b o t h k e y w o r k s on the subject and accidental, often obscure sources.
I t is i n t e n d e d as a general i n t r o d u c t i o n , or better s t i l l , an annotated
b i b l i o g r a p h y of w o r k s on the problems w h i c h are r a p i d l y becoming of
c e n t r a l interest i n the social as w e l l as the biological sciences of M a n .
A . The contemporary interest i n problems classified today as studies
i n h u m a n n o n v e r b a l behavior and c o m m u n i c a t i o n are of m a n y years'
standing a n d have a n u m b e r of roots. Such problems as "expressive
m o v e m e n t s " , "symbolic m o v e m e n t s " , " b o d i l y e x p r e s s i o n " , "gestural
behavior" or "language of gestures" have been w i t h i n the scope of i n 1
2
5
1
3
4
6
The paper is abstracted from the larger seminar paper prepared in Septem
ber 1973 in the Dept. of Anthropology, RSPacS, Australian National University,
Canberra. The author is indebted for critical remarks on the present version to
Dr Adam Kendon.
G . W. A11 p о r t, P. E . V e r n o n , Studies in expressive
movement, New
York 1933.
M. H . К r o u t, Autistic gestures: an experimental study in symbolic move
ment, „Psychological Monographs", no 208: 1935.
W. M. B l a k e , A preliminary study of the interpretation
of bodily expres
sion, New York 1933.
D. E f г о n, J . P. F o l e y , Gestural behavior and the social setting, [in:]
Т. M. N e w c o m b , E . L . H a r t l e y , Readings in Social Psychology, New York
1947.
G. С о с h i a г a, I I linguaggio del gesto, Turin 1932.
2
3
4
5
6
140
TADEUSZ
M. CIOŁEK
terest o f several scientific disciplines. E v e r y discipline has been concerned
w i t h different research problems, used different techniques of collec
t i o n and analysis of data, a n d the t h e o r e t i c a l constructions have been
created f o r d i f f e r e n t purposes. F o r these reasons the v a r i e t y of theore
t i c a l and methodological profiles of studies i n h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l
behavior is not t h e mere result of a process of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and spe
cification of scientific interests, b u t can be regarded as the outcome
of the fusion of o r i g i n a l l y d i f f e r e n t and seperate approaches, such as:
A n t h r o p o l o g y , h i s t o r y of c u l t u r e , h i s t o r y of a r t — w h e r e interest
has been focused on s y m b o l i s m of b o d i l y r i t u a l s , sign languages , e x
pression of social relations ~
or i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of v i s u a l a r t
and
music .
W i t h i n the interest of linguistics l i e p r o b l e m s of speechreplacing
signs a n d gestures , speech accompanying behavior , sign languages ,
vocal and nonvocal aspects of speech c o m m u n i c a t i o n , gestural origins
of l a n g u a g e .
The subjects of interest to psychology and p s y c h i a t r y are p r o b l e m s
of interpersonal perception , expression of p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s , expres7
9
8
1 1
1 2
1
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
18
1 9
7
2 0
W. T e g g, Meetings and greetings: the salutations, obeisances, and courtesies
of nations, London 1877.
M. L . S c o t t , The sign language of the Plains Indians of North America,
„Archives of The International Folk-lore Association", vol 1: 1893. S. E . L o o m i s,
Sign Language of truck drivers, „Western Folklore", vol 5: 1956.
M . K u t t i k r i s h n a , Hand symbols in Kathakali, „Modern Review", June
1937.
R. F i r t h , Verbal and bodily rituals of greeting and parting, [in:] J . S. L a
F o n t a i n e , Interpretation of ritual: essays in honour of A. I. Richards, London
1972.
R. B r i l l i a n t , Gesture and rank in Roman art: the use of gestures to
denote status in Roman sculpture and coinage, New Haven 1963.
E . S a X 1 , Die Ausdruckgebarde
der Bildenden Kunst, Jena 1932.
A. P. M e r r i a m, Music as symbolic behavior, [in:] H . А. В o s a m j i a n,
The rhetoric of nonverbal communication: readings, Glenview 1971.
R. J а к o b s о n, Motor signs for „Yes" and „No", „Language in Society",
vol 1: 1972.
A. T. D i 11 m a n n, L . G . L l e w e l l y n , Body movement
and speech
rhytm in social conversation, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", 11:
1969.
„Sign Language Studies", a semiannual journal edited by W. C . S t о к о e,
The Hague: Mouton.
D. A b e r c o m b i e , Paralanguage, „British Journal of Disorders of Com
munication", vol. 3: 1968.
A. J o h a n n e s s o n , The gestural origin of language, „Naturę", vol. 166:
1950. G . W. H e w e s , Primate communication and the gestural origin of language,
„Current Anthropology", vol. 14: 1973.
M. C o o k , Interpersonal perception, Hardmondsworth 1971.
С h. W o l f f , A psychology of gestures, London 1945.
8
9
1 0
11
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
2 0
STUDIES
sion of e m o t i o n a l a n d
2 3
interaction ,
2 5
tion
IN HUMAN
p s y c h o p h y s i c a l states
therapeutic
2 1
, psychodiagnosis
2 4
communication ,
as
well
as
2 2
, dyadic
selfpresenta-
.
Studies i n h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e o r y are
p r o b l e m s of signals, codes, a n d
as
with
of
exchanging
problems
of
concerned m a i n l y
with
channels used b y h u m a n beings, as w e l l
environmental
variables
influencing
the
process
26
signals .
F i n a l l y these issues are
non-human primate
And
141
COMMUNICATIONAL BEHAVIOR
27
28
of i m p o r t a n c e to p e d i a t r i c s ,
2 9
ethology ,
human
3 0
ethology ,
and
o b v i o u s l y these issues have been considered b y
3 2
p r a c t i c i a n s of o r a t o r y , t h e a t r e and
dance
3 3
and
pedagogics ,
31
zoosemiotics .
theoreticians
and
3 4
pantomime .
I n such a v a r i e t y of studies expressed b y t h e vast r a n g e o f t e c h n i c a l
l i t e r a t u r e the
growing
d e m a n d for
p r o b l e m s and
findings
is p a r t i a l l y
a synthetic
satisfied.
And
evaluation
t h u s for
of
research
the
general
discussion of t h e o r e t i c a l aspects of studies i n h u m a n one can l i s t several
important works
2 1
3 5
.
F . D u n b a r , Emotions and bodily changes: a survey of literature on psy
chosomatic interrelationships
1910-1953, New York 1954.
E . M y r a у L o p e z , Myokinetic psychodiagnosis, New York 1958.
M. A r g у 1 e, J . D e a n , Eye contact, distance, and affiliation, ,,Sociometry",
vol. 28: 1965. M. C o o k, Experiments on orientation and proxemics,
„Humań
Relations", vol. 23: 1970.
L . J . F i n e, Nonverbal aspects of psychodrama, [in:] J . H. M a s s e r m a n,
J . L . M o r e n o , Progress in psychotherapy, vol. IV. New York 1959.
J . C . F 1 u g e 1, The psychology of clothes, London 1940.
G. A. B o r d e n , An introduction
to human—communication
theory, D u
buque 1971.
K . S. R o b s о n, The role of eye—to—eye contact in maternal-infant
attach
ment, „Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry", vol. 8: 1967.
J . R. G r e e n , A gesture inventory for the teaching of Spanish, Philadel
phia 1968.
S. A. A l t m a n , The structure of primate social communication,
[in:]
S. A. A l t m a n , ed., Social communication among primates, Chicago — London
1967.
I. E i b l - E i b e s f e l d t , Transcultural patterns of ritualized contact beha
vior, [in:] A. H . E s s e r, Behavior and environment: the use of space by ani
mals and men, New York 1971.
T . A. S e b e ok, ed., Animal communication: techniques of study and
results of research, Bloomington •— London 1968.
J . P. M а с L a u r i n, Self-education in gesture for public speaking, Glas
gow 1910.
A. M o r g a n , An hour with Delsatre: a study of expression, Boston 1889.
F . A. F . A d a m s , Gesture and pantomime action, New York 1891.
P. E к m a n, W. V. F r i e s e n ,
The repertoire of nonverbal
behavior:
categories, origins, usage and coding, „Semiotica", vol. 1: 1969. M. A r g y l e , So
cial Interaction, Atherton 1969. M. A r g у 1 e, The psychology of interpersonal
behaviour, Harmondsworth 1972, M. A r g y l e , Nonverbal communication in human
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
3 5
142
TADEUSZ
If
we
are
concerned w i t h w o r k s s u m m a r i z i n g
aspects of these studies, beside t h e
most v a l u a b l e are
38
expression ,
linguistic
human
M. CIOŁEK
reviews for
interpersonal
4 1
communication
3 9
f o r the
trends
and
3 6
Duncan ,
37
interactions ,
facial-visual
40
signals ,
the
facial
extra-
area of ethological approach
to
.
F i n a l l y t h e r e are several b i b l i o g r a p h i e s
T h e r e are
different
paper b y
ecology of h u m a n
perception ,
v o c a l b e h a v i o r , and
4 2
excellent
4 3
and m o r e p o p u l a r r e v i e w s
also several useful selections of readings
4 S
4 4
.
.
social interaction, [in:] R. A. Hinde, ed., Non—verbal communication, Cambridge
1972. А. К e n d о n, The review of R. Birdwhistell's book: Kinesics and Context,
„American Journal of Psychology", vol. 85: 1972. A. E . S c h e f l e n , How beha
vior means, New York 1973.
S. D u n c a n , Nonverbal communication, „Psychological Bulletin", vol. 72:
1969.
I . A 1 1 m a n, E . L e t t , The ecology of interpersonal relationships: a clas
sification system and conceptual model, [in:] J . E . M c G r a t h , ed., Social and
psychological factors in stress, 1967. R. S o m m e r , Small group ecology, „ P s y
chological Bulletin", vol. 67: 1967.
P. E к m a n, V. W. F r i e s e n , P. E l l s w o r t h , Emotion in the human
face: guideline for research and integration of findings, New York 1972. P. E km a n, ed., Darwin and facial expression: a century of research in review, New
York 1973.
M. C o o k , Interpersonal perception, Hardmondsworth 1971.
I . V i n e , Communication by facial—visual signals, [in:] J . H . C r o o k , ed.
Social Behavior in birds and mammals: essays on the social ethology of animals
and Man, London — New York 1970.
G . F . M a h 1, G . S с h u 1 z e, Psychological research in the extralinguistic
area,
[in:] T . A . S e b e ok, et. al., eds., Approaches to semiotics, The Hague 1964.
С h. R. В r a n n i g a n, D. A. H u m p h r i e s , Human non—verbal
beha
viour: a means of communication, [in:] N. B l u r t o n J o n e s , ed., Ethological
studies of child behaviour, Cambridge 1972.
Т. M. C i o ł e k , Human communicational behavior — a provisional
check
list, „Sign Language Studies", no. 5: 1974. M. D a v i s , Understanding body mo
vement: an annotated bibliography, New York 1972. F . C . H a y e s , Gestures:
a working bibliography, „Southern Folklore Quarterly", vol. 21: 1957. M. L u r k e r, Bibliographic zur Symbolkunde, Baden—Baden 1968. T. P f e i f f e r , Some
references to the study of human ethology, Mimeographed. Dept. of Anthropology,
Livingston College, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1971.
L . L . B a r k e r , N. B. C o l l i n s , Nonverbal and kinesic research, [in:]
P. E m m e r t, W. D. B r o o k s , eds., Methods of research in communication, B o
ston 1970. D. C . B a r n l u n d ,
Nonverbal
interaction:
introduction,
[in:]
D. C . B a r n l u n d , ed., Interpersonal communication: survey and studies, Bo
ston 1968. H. J . V e t t e r , Language behavior and communication: an introdu
ction, Itasca 1969.
M. A r g у 1 e, ed., Social encounters: readings in social interaction, Hard
mondsworth 1973. H. А. В o s m a j i a n, ed., The rethoric of nonverbal
communi
cation: readings, Glenview 1971. J . L a v e r , S. H u t c h e s o n ,
Communication
in face to face interactions: selected readings, Hardmondsworth 1972.
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
4 5
STUDIES IN HUMAN COMMUNICATIONAL
из
BEHAVIOR
В . There exist three f u n d a m e n t a l groups of studies concerned w i t h
the three basic functions of n o n v e r b a l behaviors i n face-to-face i n t e r
actions. The f i r s t g r o u p of w o r k consists of researches on the speechreplacing junction. T h e r e are several reasons f o r w h i c h v e r b a l c o m
m u n i c a t i o n (based on w r i t t e n or spoken language) is subject to r e p l a
cement b y "sign languages"
and "technical codes". Besides the deaf
a n d m u t e sign systems, and some social taboos such as i n the case T r a p pist m o n k s , q u i t e complex systems o f gestural and p o s t u r a l signs are
used f o r solving the p r o b l e m of:
— differences i n spoken languages used b y i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d i n the
act of c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( i . e. A m e r i c a n Indians, d r i v e r s , traffic police,
i n t e r n a t i o n a l g r o u n d - a i r rescue signals)
— noise p r e c l u d i n g any efficient use of speech (drivers, hitchhickers,
firemen)
— distance w h i c h is too great f o r effective voice use ( i n t e r n a t i o n a l
g r o u n d - a i r signals, crane-operators, f i r e m e n , umpires)
— silence w h i c h f o r any specific reason should not be d i s t u r b e d (sur
geons, hunters, conductors & choirmasters, i n g a m b l i n g casions)
— b a r r i e r s or e x t e r n a l conditions m a k i n g the use of v e r b a l c o m m u n i
cation impossible (radio & television gestures, divers)
— secrecy: b o t h of message itself and of the fact of c o m m u n i c a t i o n
(gambling casinos, burglars, secret associations, prisoners).
The second g r o u p of studies is concerned w i t h the role of nonverbal
signals in the process of supporting, completing, regulating the verbal
communication. These studies are devoted to the analysis o f the t e m p o
r a l sequence or c o i n c i d e n c e , of the v e r b a l and n o n v e r b a l behaviors
as w e l l as to the analysis of i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between meanings con
veyed b y each of the channels . The various types o f elements of v i s u a l
and acoustic behavior have i m p o r t a n t functions:
— t h e y complete the meaning (repeat, i l l u s t r a t e , accent, anticipate, con
tradict) of spoken utterances
— t h e y c o n t r o l the s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n of actions i n conversation
4 6
4 7
4
48
4 9
5 0
4 6
Т. В r u n, The international
dictionary
of sign language, London 1969.
Т. M. C i o ł e k ,
Materiały
do alchemii gestów,
„Etnografia Polska", vol. 17:
1973.
M. С r i t с h 1 e у, The language of gesture, London 1939.
W. S. C o n d o n , W. D. O g s t о n, Sound film analysis of normal and
pathological behavior patterns, „Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease", vol. 143:
1966.
M. A r g у 1 e, et. al. The communication of inferior and superior attitudes
by verbal and non—verbal signals, „British Journal of Social and Clinical Psycholo
gy", vol. 9: 1970.
S. D u n c a n , Some signals at. rules for taking speaking turns in conver
sations, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", vol. 23: 1972. A . K e n 4 7
4 8
4 9
5 0
144
T A D E U S Z M. CIOŁEK
— t h e y p r o v i d e feedback to the speaker on the reaction of the audience
— t h e y signal to the speaker about the attentiveness of a listener.
The t h i r d group of studies, the most i n t e r e s t i n g f r o m the p o i n t of
v i e w of anthropological sciences, is concerned w i t h the researches on
nonverbal behavior in managing the immediate social situation . These
studies deal w i t h the general question: W h a t b e h a v i o r a l elements, i n
w h a t sort of configurations and i n w h a t contexts, are i n use f o r the
purpose of:
— c o n t r o l of the content, emotional tone and l e n g t h of interactions
— c o n t r o l of dimensions (role-relation, i n t i m a c y , dominance) of r e l a
tionship
— co-ordination of activities and sequences of behavior
— signalling responsiveness and attentiveness.
C. T h e f u n d a m e n t a l and r a p i d progress of knowledge i n the f i e l d of
h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l behavior is associated w i t h the i n c o r p o r a t i o n
i n t o the b o d y of social sciences the principle of the study of the detailed
process of specific interactions at the level of the elements of these intera
ctions. U n d o u b t e d l y , h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l here have been some m e t h o d o l o g i
cal postulates w o r k e d out i n biological sciences, especially b y h u m a n et
hology. P a r t i c u l a r y i m p o r t a n t seem to b e
three r e q u i r e m e n t s :
— emphasis o n the use of the large v a r i e t y of simple observable features
of behavior as r a w data
— emphasis on the development of the descriptive and hypothesisgenerating phase as the s t a r t i n g p o i n t of s t u d y
— an avoidance of major categories of behavior whose r e a l i t y or ope
r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n have not been made clear enough.
The acceptance of these methodological principles appears to be
i n congruence w i t h the i n n e r t r e n d of systematis studies i n functions
of body m o t i o n , paralanguage a n d p r o x i m a t i o n . These studies w e r e
b r o u g h t i n t o existence b y c o n s t r u c t i n g and developing systems of i d e n
t i f i c a t i o n and n o t a t i o n for elements of v o c a l
and non-acoustic beha51
52
5 3
5 4
d o n , Some functions of gaze direction in social interaction, „Acta Psychologica"
v o l 26: 1967.
M. A r g y l e , Social Interaction, Atherton 1969.
M. A r g y l e , ed., Social encounters: readings in social interaction, Hard
mondsworth 1973.
N. B l u r t o n J o n e s , Characteristics
of ethological studies of human
behaviour, [in:] N. B l u r t o n J o n e s , ed., Ethological studies of child behaviour,
Cambridge 1972.
G . L . T r a g e r, Paralanguage: a first approximation,
„Studies in L i n
guistics", vol. 13: 1958. D. C r y s t a l , B . Q u i r k , Systems of prosodic and paralinguistic features in English, The Hague 1964.
51
5 2
5 8
5 4
STUDIES
IN HUMAN
COMMUNICATIONAL
145
BEHAVIOR
5 5
v i o r . A t the same t i m e the f u l l usage of h u m a n ethology's research
techniques, as w e l l as its findings, seems to safeguard the progress i n
social sciences.
T h e second s t i m u l a t i n g factor was the i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o social
sciences of the idea of extensively
relating findings from the sphere
of human behavior to their biological basis as well as to their
inter
actional, physical, social, psychological
and cultural context. I n accor
dance w i t h this t r e n d several studies have been made, m a i n l y w i t h i n
the f r a m e w o r k of researches i n social psychology, on the influence of
some antecedent and c o n t e x t u a l factors on ongoing social interaction.
G e n e r a l l y speaking several types of researches can be distinguished
concerned w i t h such problems as:
— t h e influence of the purpose of encounter o n the outcome of i n t e r
action
— the influence of p h y s i c a l and physiological factors encompassing
b o t h the m o m e n t a r y a n d r e l a t i v e l y e n d u r i n g states of i n d i v i d u a l s
i n v o l v e d i n i n t e r a c t i o n . Some factors l i k e body b u i l d , p h y s i c a l
stigma , pupil dilation
can be of great i m p o r t a n c e f o r the f i n a l
result of an encounter
— the influence of personal (demographic, psychological, sociocultural)
characteristics. Some of t h e m l i k e appearance , sex, age , ethnic back5 6
5 7
5 8
5 9
6 0
6 1
5 5
e 2
R. B i r d w h i s t e l l , Introduction to kinesics, Louisville 1952. R. В i r dw h i s t e l l , Kinesics and context: essays on body motion communication, P h i
ladelphia 1970. Т. E . H a l l , A system for the notation of proxemic
behavior,
„American Anthropologist", vol. 65: 1963.
M. C o o k , Experiments on orientation and proxemics, „Humań Relations",
vol. 23: 1970. R. S o m m e r , Further studies in small group ecology, „Sociometry",
vol. 28: 1965.
G . M с В r i d e, et al., Social proximity effects on galvanic skin responses
in adult humans, „Journal of Psychology", vol. 61: 1965.
К. T. S t r o n g m a n , C . J . H a r t , Stereotyped reactions to body build,
.Psychological Report", vol. 23: 1968.
E . G o f f m a n, Stigma: notes on the management
of spoiled
identity,
Englewood Cliffs 1963. R. K l e c k , Physical stigma and nonverbal cues emitted in
the face to face interactions, „Humań Relations", vol. 21: 1968.
J . W. S t a s s, F . N. W i l l i s , Eye contact, pupil dilation and personal
preference, „Psychonomic Science", vol. 7: 1967.
M. A r g у 1 e, R. M с H e n r y, Do spectacles really affect judgments of
intelligence?, „British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology", vol. 10: 1970.
W. J . M с К e а с h i e, Lipstick as a determiner of first impressions of persona
lity, „Journal of Social Psychology", vol. 36: 1952.
G. N i e l s e n , Studies in self-confrontation,
viewing of sound motion pic
ture of self and another person in a stressful dyadic situation. Copenhagen 1962.
L . A. P a s t a l a n , D. H . C a r s o n , eds., Spatial behavior of older people, Ann
Arbor 1970.
5 6
5 7
5 8
6 9
6 0
6 1
6 2
10 — E t n o g r a f i a P o l s k a , X I X / 2
146
TADEUSZ
M. CIOŁEK
6 3
g r o u n d , psychological disturbances
tant
65
differences ,
emotional
6 6
67
the
influence
events
have
have been f o u n d
tone of i n t e r a c t i o n ,
r e l a t i o n s h i p s , value c o n g r u e n c e
—
6 1
68
subject
to
and
have also been p o i n t e d
of e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors w h i c h
been
to be
role
detailed
encompass the
studies.
The
impor
status
out
set
of
representative
studies here are those on the i n f l u e n c e of landscape a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e
l i v i n g arrangement
of c r o w d i n g
7 3
7 0
, room
design
7 1
, seating a r r a n g e m e n t s
, i n t e r p e r s o n a l distances
7 4
7 2
6 9
,
, degree
.
D . W i t h i n n o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n studies exists a great v a r i e t y of
research techniques. T h e
main
differences
can
be
r e c a p i t u l a t e d as
fol
lows:
The
f i r s t is developed a r o u n d the
b e h a v i o r is r e g a r d e d as
the
main
question: w h i c h aspect of
human
f i e l d of interest. Thus some studies
can be devoted t o the b e h a v i o r of t h a t i n d i v i d u a l , w h o i n the course of
6 3
J . R. A i e 11 o, S. E . J o n e s , Field study of the proxemic behavior of
young school children in three subcultural groups, „Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology", vol. 19: 1971. О. M. W a t s o n , T. D. G r a v e s ,
Quantitative
research in proxemic behavior, „American Anthropologist" vol. 68: 1966.
C . H u 11, С. O u n n s t e a d, The biological significance of gaze aversion
with particular reference to the syndrome of infantile autism, „Behavioral Science",
vol. 11: 1966.
R. Firth, Postures and gestures of respect, [in:] P. M a r a n d a, J . P o u i 11 o n, eds., Exchange et communications: Melanges Levi-Strauss, The Hague 1969.
R. V. E X 1 i n e, L . C . W i n t e r s , Affective relations and mutual glances
in dyads, [in:] S. S. T o m p k i n s , С. E . I z a r d , eds., Affect, cognition and per
sonality, New York 1965.
S. M. J o u r a r d, An exploratory study body accessibility, „British Journal
of Social and Clinical Psychology", vol. 5: 1966. D. F . L o t t , R. S o m m e r ,
Seating arrangements and status, „Journal of Personality and Social Psychology",
vol. 7: 1967.
К. B. L i t t l e , et. al., Value congruence and interaction distances, „Journal
of Social Psychology", vol. 79: 1968.
H . W r i g h t , R. B a r k e r , Midwest and its children, Lawrence 1957.
R. R. B l a k e , et. al., Housing architecture and social interaction, „Sociometry", vol. 19: 1956.
R. S o m m e r , Small group ecology, „Psychological Bulletin", vol. 67: 1967.
A . P. H a r e , R. F . B a l e s , Seating position and small-group
interaction,
„Sociometry". vol. 26: 1963.
W. G r i f f i 11, P, V e i t с h, Hot and crowded: influences of population
density on interpersonal affective behavior, „Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology", vol. 17: 1971.
M. A r g у 1 e, J . D e a n , Eye contact, distance, and affiliation, „Sociomet
ry", vol. 28: 1965.
6 4
6 5
6 6
6 7
6 8
69
7 0
7 1
72
7 3
7 4
STUDIES IN HUMAN COMMUNICATIONAL
147
BEHAVIOR
7 5
i n t e r a c t i o n is the "sender of a s i g n a l " , other studies can focus t h e i r
a t t e n t i o n o n the behavior o f the "receiver of a signal" , or studies can
be concerned w i t h the n a t u r e of t h e signal . F i n a l l y as the m a i n issue
the i n t e r a c t i o n a l event itself w i t h i t s s t r u c t u r e and charakteristics can be
studied .
7 6
7 7
7 8
T h e second t y p e is based on the status chosen f o r the i n d i v i d u a l s s t u
died. There are several possibilities: a n i n d i v i d u a l (or group of them) can
be t o t a l l y unaware t h a t the studies on t h e i r behavior are being c a r r i e d
o u t , secondly subject(s) can be t o l d g e n e r a l l y b u t unspecifically t h a t
studies concerned w i t h t h e i r behavior w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t , f i n a l l y sub
j e c t s ) can be f u l l y i n f o r m e d about the objectives and details of planned
studies .
7 9
8 0
8 1
The n e x t v a r i e t y is r e l a t e d to the w a y the r a w data is collected. The
collection can be based on f i e l d studies i n n a t u r a l settings, such as l i
braries, restaurants, shopping centers, nurseries, airports, parks , or the
data collection can be c a r r i e d out w i t h the a i d of l a b o r a t o r y facilities .
I n t h i s case there are t w o possibilities: a) the analysed phenomena can
be deliberately ( a r t i f i c a l l y ) elicited f o r the purpose of a g i v e n phase of
r e s e a r c h , or b) t h e y can be observed and recorded w i t h o u t i n t e r f e
rence b y the researcher i n t h e i r spontaneous o c c u r r e n c e .
8 2
8 3
84
85
7 5
I . E i b l - E i b e s f e l d t , Transcultural patterns of ritualized contact beha
vior, [in:] A. H . E s s e r, ed., Behavior and environment:
the use of space by
animals and men, New York 1971.
A. T . D i t t m a n , et. al., Facial and bodily expression: a study of recep
tivity of emotional cues, „Psychiatry", vol. 28: 1965.
N. B l u r t o n J o n e s , Criteria for use in describing facial
expressions
of children, „Humań Biology", vol. 43: 1971.
A. K e n d o n , A. F e r b e r, A description of some human greetings, [in:]
R. P. M i c h a e l , J . H . C r o o k , eds., Comparative Ecology and Behaviour of
Primates, London 1973.
W. C . M c G r e w ,
An ethological study of children's behaviour,
New
York — London 1972; Т. M. C i o ł e k , Greeting and farewell behavior in Man:
report
on preliminary
investigations,
Mimeographed, Dept. of Anthropology,
RSPacS, Australian National University, Canberra 1974.
M. H . К r o u t, An experimental
attempt to produce unconscious manual
symbolic movements, „The Journal of General Psychology", no 208: 1954.
D. F . T h o m p s o n , L . M e l t z e r , Communicational
of emotional
intent
by facial expressions, „Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology", vol. 68: 1964.
S. H e s h к a, Y . N e l s o n , Interpersonal Speaking Distance as a Function
of Age, Sex, and Relationship, „Sociometry", vol. 35: 1972.
M. A r g у 1 e, R. I n h g a m , Gaze, mutual baze, and proximity, „Semiotica", vol. 6:1972.
i. e. G. M с В r i d e et al., 1965.
А. К e n d o n, Movement coordination in social interaction: some examples
described, „Acta Psychologica" vol 32: 1970.
7 6
7 7
7 8
7 9
8 0
8 1
8 2
8 8
8 4
8 5
148
T A D E U S Z M. CIOŁEK
The f o u r t h t y p e of difference arises f r o m t h e w a y the data is c o l
lected and recorded. Several techniques can be e m p l o y e d seperatedly
or s i m u l t a n o u s l y : q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , observation a n d n o t e - t a k i n g ; obser
v a t i o n w i t h the a i d of detailed n o t a t i o n system ; observations w i t h the
a i d of check-lists and v i d e o t a p e r a c o r d e r s
taperecording comments on
ongoing i n t e r a c t i o n a l e v e n t s ; analysis of transcribed v i d e o t a p e
as
w e l l as the frame b y frame analysis of a research document f i l m .
86
8 7
8 8
89
90
91
9 2
F i n a l l y the f i f t h category is connected w i t h methods of data analy
sis. A n d thus conclusions can be d r a w n i n m a n y ways: o n the basis of
s t r u c t u r a l , c o n t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s ; on the basis of statistical t r e a t m e n t
of n u m e r i c d a t a ; or event due to computer p r o c e s s i n g .
93
9 4
86
8 7
8 8
i. e. S. M. J o u r a r d 1966.
i. e. R. F i r t h 1969.
О. M. W a t s o n , Proxemic
95
behavior:
a cross—cultural
study, The Hague
1970.
8 9
i. e. W. С. M с G r e w 1972.
i. e. W. С. M с G r e w 1972.
i. e. S. D u n c a n 1972.
i. е. А. К e n d o n, A. F e r b e r 1973.
A. E . S с h e f 1 e n, Natural History Method in Psychotherapy:
communicational research, [in:] L . A. G o t t s c h a l k , A. H . A u e r b a c h , Methods of
Research in Psychotherapy,
New York 1966.
M. H. K r o u t, An experimental
attempt to determine the significance of
unconscious manual movements, „The Journal of General Psychology", vol. 51: 1954.
P. E k m a n , W. V . F r i e s e n , Т. T a u s s i g , VID—R and SCAN: tools and
methods for automated analysis of visual records, [in:] G . G e r b n e r , et. al., The
analysis of communication content, New York 1969.
9 0
91
9 2
9 3
9 4
9 5
