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Part of Summary of articles / Polska Sztuka Ludowa - Konteksty 1989 t.43 z.1-2
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SUMMARIES
The present double issue of the series of monographs on national
minorities in Poland is dedicated to Jewish culture. Before World
War I I the Jews with their 3 million inhabitants constituted about
10% of the Polish society. I t is from Poland that come almost half of
the Jewish families now living mainly in the USA and Israel. It is also
in Poland that 5 to 6 million Jews from Poland, Greece, Germany,
Holland and other countries were murdered in the holocaust. We
now observe in our country a great interest in Jewish culture, also
among ethnographers. Although educated in Hebrew and Jidish,
they find it extremely difficult to restore the image of the past due to
atrocious devastation of the sources and remains of material and
spiritual culture. Our quarterly would like to contribute to the effort
of all those institutions and individuals who try to preserve and
evoke the memories of the culture that for centuries coexisted with
Polish culture in villages, towns, and cities.
We publish excisions f r o m . A b r a h a m J o s h u a H e s c h e l ' s
book T H E E A R T H IS T H E LORD'S. T H E I N N E R W O R L D OF
T H E JEW I N EAST EUROPE in order to present Jewish culture,
faith, philosophy, and system of values to all those our readers who
are less familiar with the problem. Similar was the reason for
publishing M a c i e j K r u p a ' s review of the album on the rites and
customs of the Jews presently living in Hungary. In 0 1 g a G o 1 d b e r g - M u l k i e w i c z ' s review of the book on the world Jewish
cuttings written by Giza Frankel from Haifa, we include characteris
tic forms of cuttings connected with various feasts and customs.
Olga Goldberg-Mulkiewicz dedicates an obituary to Giza Frankel,
an ethnographer working and living in Israel after World War I I ,
who contributed to the studies on the culture of Polish Jews. G.
Frankel's article on Jewish cuttings in Poland was published in our
quarterly in 1965 (no 3).
K o n s t a n t y Ge b er t in the article... SO T H A T T H E P L O U G H
DOESN'T BREAK. R O M A R K S O N JEWISH D E M O N O L O G Y
presents in a concise way Jewish demonology starting from the
classical works: the Old Testament, Talmud, cabalistic writings, to
conclude in the definite practical demonology.
Z b i g n i e w T a r g i e l s k i — D A N C E A N D M U S I C AS T H E
EXPRESSION OF CHASSIDISM
Targielski reconstructs the spiritual climate that coincided with
the appearance of chassidism in Poland, a new religious-mystic
movement. I t attiributed great significance to prayer considering it
one of the essential spiritual acts and the only way to God. Extasis
that can be attained through prayer leads to mystic unity with God.
The adoration of God was revealed in such elementary forms as
singing and dancing, hence their importance for the movement. The
borderline between sacral and lay music disappeared, for holiness
reaches to the every day's life reality. The words are of secondary
importance, occasionally meaningless. I t is melody that gains the
priority, since together with dance it leads to mystic extasy.
J a c e k O l ę d z k i — KVITLEHS F R O M LEŻAJSK. T H E
QUESTION OF SUPPLICATION A N D T H A N K S G I V I N G
I N CHASSIDIC A N D C A T H O L I C VOTIVE CULTS
Olędzki, an author dealing with votive cults in Poland, analyzes
similarities and differences between the votives offered by the Poles
and Jews; he bases himself on kvitlehs (requests found in ohel — the
tomb of the zaddick-wonderworker, Noam Elimelech (1717
— 1787) in Leżajsk. Leżajsk was pilgirmed by both Poles and Jews,
the first coming to the miracullous picture of Our Lady of Leżajsk,
140
the latter coming to the tomb of the zaddick one of the creators of the
chassidism. Olędzki analyzes form and contents of about 70 kvitlehs,
mainly in Jidish, and coming from the hasidim from Poland and
abroad (Western Europe, the USA, Israel). They used to visit
Elimelech's ohel since 1960 's till the begining of 1970's. The author
gives various ethic and research reasons that justify his breaking the
privacy of the kvitlehs. He also stresses poetical and literary qualities
of the chassidic confessions (expression)..The discussed lettters are
characterized by the requesting attitude of the faithful (request), and
never by the propiatory (begging) one. Bearing in mind the lack of
thanksgiving and oaths, we observe that the character of the cult is
precisely defined by this requesting attitude. Uniform to a far greater
extent than in Catholic sanctuaries the attitude of the faithful is
characterized by sincere, straight-forward act of trustfulness and
faith, all imbued with crude obligation to be — exist in good health,
material prosperity, surrounded by the off-springs, and with full
readiness to know and follow the principles of the tora. The contents
of the letters is not dominated by the thanksgiving concretism
(dominant in Catholic votives) and cannot be connected with the
stereotype of self-interest as distinct from „selfless" thanksgiving
attitude of the Catholics. As seen in the result of previous research
(Andree 1900 van Gennerj 1910 Kriss 1930 Olędzki I960) in some
rural and urban communities in Europe also partially among the
nobility the utilitarian" sincere and'straight-forward attitude
devoid Of any thanksgiving hypocrisy was in the period between the
17th and 20th century unique and exceptional. Therefore, the
greatest values of the coextistence between the Poles and Jews and
not revealing uny deep antagonisms were to be found first of all in
the country or in some towns of Eastern territories such as Lvov
Przemvsl Leżaisk where no excessive thankseivine tonalitv was
developed, but rather the begging one, like among the hasidim.
Olędzki decides that the comparison can be transfered to a vaster
background of evaluation systems and social values developed in
Europe as the result of the professed religious dogmas. And in that
case one should speak on the one hand of votive cults in Roman
Catholicism and similar practices (eg. chassidic kvitlehs), and on the
other of a total negation of such attitudes among the followers of the
Protestant, Orthodox, and Greek-Catholic churches. And it is in this
general outlook permiting people address God with their requests
and thanksgiving (through pictures and in writing) that the author
discerns the cause for religious animosities. They are deeper in
Protestant religions.
M o n i k a K r a j e w s k a in her two articles JEWISH CEMETARIES I N POLAND: TOMBS A N D EPITAPHS and SYMBO
LISM OF RELIEFS I N JEWISH CEMETERIES I N POLAND
discusses the problem of Jewish cemeteries. They were largely
destroyed during the war. Hardly cared for after World War I I they
underwent further decay. The pre-war research concerned only
cemeteries in bigger cities. The today's attempt to restore their
complete image is but saving the remnants. In the years 1974—86 the
author investigated 102 cemeteries. Although the articles concern
Polish territories for comparative reasons some information about
foreign examples are also presented. She distinguishes three types of
the tomb: mozeva, sarcophagus-like, ohel; however she herself sees
this distinction as an imperfect approximation. Both the inscriptions
and reliefs in Jewish cemeteries are closely connected with the
religious culture of the Jews, although some Christian influences can
also be traced. When analyzing the inscriptions, Krajewska points
out to their artistic form, ie. graphic character of letters, which
permits to weave Hebrew letters in the motifs of reliefs. She also
emphasises analogies between epitaphs and reliefs (a list of recurring
relief motifs and inscrpitions is included). Easily observed is the
stereotype character of the epitaphs. The author discusses in detail
the contents and cliches in the inscriptions. She stresses the use of
siginificant words to cipher, for example, the date of death; this is
possible in view of the numerical qualities of Hebrew letters, which
often obscures the inscription.
The second article concentrates on the motifs of tomb reliefs.
This art was greatly limitied by the prohibition of presenting human
figures, which was not always strictly observed. When discussing
particular motifs the author concentrates mainly on the symbolic
meaning connected with the dead, his origin, religious function, and
individual features. Krajewska presents common motifs, their
possible sources, and suggests their interpretation. She stresses the
difficulty with interpreting many motifs, eg. some animals may be
connected with the first name or less often the surname of the dead,
they may symbolize the date "of death (zodiak animals), and have
other symbolic meaning connected with the defunct, they may also
be mere copies, since we observe here frequent stereotypes, similarly
.to epitaphs.
The articles are completed by S t a n i s l a w K r a j e w s k i ' s
translation of some Hebrew epitaphs from Jewish cemeteries in
Poland including the oldest one (1203) found in Wroclaw.
A n d r z e j T r z c i ń s k i — TOMB-STONEPOLICHROMIESON
JEWISH CEMETERIES I N SOUTH-EASTERN POLAND
The author discusses tomb-stone polichromies on Jewish cemete
ries on the example of 18 burial grounds he has examined. In spite of
the fact that the tomb-stones are often not wen preserved, Trzciński
was able to generalize some correlations in the colouring of
particular elements of the tomb structure, that is the shape of letters,
background, and ornamental motifs in low relief. Not only does he
present the general technological rules of making polichromies but
also tries to justify the application of particular colours on the basis
of the colour symbolism in Jewish religion.
M a r i a a n d K a z i m i e r z P i e c h o t k o w i e — POLICHRO
MIES OF POLISH WOODEN SYNAGOGUES
The custom to paint synagogue interior was characteristic
exclusively of Poland. If occurring elsewhere (eg. South Germany) it
testifies to the migration of the Polish Jews. Decorative art
developed in Polish synagogues due to an exceptional position of the
Jews in Poland and the authority of rabbies in the 16th and 17th
centuries. Whereas in Western Europe, the Haskala, together with
its protestant associations, contributed greatly to rationalizing the
cult. The authors discuss the design of the synagogue interiors and
decorations of particular synagogues pointing out to their motifs,
sources, and symbolic meanings. They also analyze the impact
Jewish painting was prone to (eg. paintings in Polish wooden
churches, illusionism, etc.). They signal that the discussed objects are
just remnants of the phenomenon the extent of which is difficult to
judge on the grounds of very scarce records.
Andrzej Trzciński
„YOU SHALL D W E L L I N BOOTHS
FOR SEVEN DAYS..." (LEV. 23. 42)
In Tyczyn (Rzeszów voivedship) in the attick of one of the houses
at the market square (built in 1912) a room designed as a sukka (hut,
tent) has been found, the room having been used on the Feast of
Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles). The room had a mobile roof and
wooden floor. Water painting have been preserved on two walls. A l l
the scenes, ie. floral motifs, a crown, lion, people, are considered by
Trzciński, somewhat hypothetical^, to derive from the Biblical
tradition. The author regards the Tyczyn discovery as the most
valuable among the rare examples of this kind in Poland.
L u d w i k S t o m m a — THE I M A G E OF T H E JEW I N T H E
STRUCTURE OF POLISH PEASANT M Y T H S
The author proves that the image of the Jew in Polish folk culture
is mostly based on myths, only slightly determined by class or
economic factors. This is proven by the stuctural affinity between
tales of Christ's death and the so-called „ritual murders" as well as
the tales repeating the scheme and referring to the matters complete
ly foreign to the Polish countryside (participation of the Jews in the
plot against the passengers of the Titanic). This is also confirmed by
the identical distribution of Jewish motifs in Poland, repeated even
by young, post-war generation which had no contacts with the Jews,
W ł a d y s ł a w T . B a r t o s z e w s k i — RELATIONS BETWEEN
T H E PEASANTS A N D T H E JEWS
In the interwar periods Poland closely followed the USA in the
number of Jewish population. More than half of the Polish Jews
lived in villages or small towns. Thus it is only natural that the
relations between the peasants and the Jews were close and a figure
of the Jew was often present in folklore (Herods, weddings).
Bartoszewski argues that the image of the Jew in folklore was
ambiguous and two types can be distinguished: that of „ o u r " Jew
and „Jew-stranger" (the one with whom there are no relations and
who usually comes from a distant big town). „Jew-stranger" is ...
a figure estimated negatively, whereas „our Jew" is usually to be
found on the border-line between familiarity and strangeness, and is
fully accepted by the rural community.
It is also noteworthy that the author profits from the materials
that so far have not been used by ethnographers, ie. yizkher bikher
(Books of Memory) written by the Jews who have survived the
holocaust.
The following articles deal with every-days relations between the •
Poles and the Jews. T o m a s z G a j d a , a peasant from Dębska
Wola (the voivedship of Kielce) wrote: T H E JEWS I N M Y A N D
N E I G H B O U R I N G VILLAGES I N T H E YEARS 1918 — 1945.
A D I A R Y . D o r o t a P a c e w i c z a n d K r z y s z t o f S a b a k talked
to one of the most outsdanding contemporary sculptors, Adam
Zegadło from the village of Krzyżka (WITH A D A M Z E G A D Ł O
A N D HIS WIFE O N T H E JEWS).
Alicja
M a l e t a — T H E JEWS F R O M CZUDEC I N T H E
M E M O R Y OF OTHER I N H A B I T A N T S
The article results from the research carried out in Czudec in
1986, where in the interwar period the Jews constituted half of the
population. The author presents people's opinions on the local Jews,
comparisons between Jewish and Polish craftmanship and trade, as
well as what is remembered about the Jews, ie. the prohibitions and
rules connected with various spheres of their life, rites, and feasts.
The article concludes with the information about the holocaust of
the Jews.
O l g a G o l d b e r g - M u l k i e w i c z — T H E M U T U A L PENE
T R A T I O N OF F O L K ELEMENTS BETWEEN POLISH A N D
JEWISH C O M M U N I T I E S
According to the author, the works dealing with the Po
lish-Jewish relationship, though limited mainly to the relation: one's
own — alien and economic contacts, overestimate the isolation of
both societies. These relatonships must have been significant and
concerned numerous spheres of life. For instance, Jewish craftsmen
used to make small crosses, sold however by non-Jewish traders.
When building a house, some rites are known to have been observed.
Were they observed when a Christian house was built by Jewish
craftsmen? — asks the author. Although drawing particular motifs
from the whole of the ornament is somewhat risky, Olga Gold
berg-Mulkiewicz describes some motifs applied in cuttings and
carpentry where mutual derivations of motifs are unquestionable.
This leads her to conclude that the contacts between the two
communities were multifarious.
141
Lwa
F r y s - P i e t r a s z k o w a — PARTICIPATION OF JE
WISH CRAFTSMEN I N R U R A L C U L T U R E
The materials concerning the participation of Jewish craftsmen
in rural culture come from the Archives of the Docummentation of
Folk Art (Cracow division of the Institute of Art of the Polish
Academy of Sciences). The research carried out in the years
1952—86 in Eastern part of Poland concentrated on the craftmanship which provided for the needs of the countryside. The majority of
the materials prove the significant role of the Jewish craftmanship in
the supplies for the rural market.
• M a r i a F i d e r k i e w i c z — I M A G E OF T H E JEWS I N FOLK
LORE OF T H E Ż Y W I E C BESKID M O U N T A I N S
Fiderkiewicz deals with the figure of the Jew and his image in
folklore reflected in ritual groups of the „Beggars" and „Noblemen"
from the Żywiec Beskid Mountains. She traces the changes in the
figure of the Jew, his appearance, language, and the change of the
stereotype of the Jew over the period when the every-day's contacts
between the Poles and Jews had ceased. The research carried out in
1985 enabled the author to reconstruct the rite going back to 1920's.
M a c i e j K r u p a — F I D D L E R O N T H E ROOF, T H A T IS T H E
UNIVERSAL JEW
The present research concerned the image of the Jew among
primary school-children. It consisted in two elements: artistic
representations and the poll carried out among children requested to
describe and present sources of information about the Jews. The
given images point out to scarcity of information, mostly stereotypi
cal, about the Jews, influenced by the film Fiddler on the Roof shown
recenty in Polish tv.
Bogdana
P i l i c h o w s k a — CRACOW C H U R C H FAIR
TOYS PRESENTING T H E JEWS
Wooden figures of the Jews were sold at three Cracow church
fairs: at Emaus on Eastern Monday, at Rękawka on the first Tues
day after Easter, and at Skałka on May 8th (feast day of St.
Stanislaus). The best known is the Emaus fair. It has been held in the
very same place for at least 400 years, ie. at the foot of St. Salvator's
church and the Norbertine nunnery. Ethnographers maintain that
ever since the second half of the 19th century it has been the greatest
toy market in Poland. We do not know when the first figures of the
Jews appeared at the fair. The oldest information dates back to 1874.
The figures were produced mainly by the masons from Zwierzyniec
and Podgórze. Placed often on wooden stands they presented adult
mails in different poses (eg. with Hebrew text in hand) and were
denominated accordingly as praying, singing, reading Jews; they
also used to hold a musical instrument (harph, double-bass,
dulcimer), or to have a bird sitting on the hand or pertch, as well as
a dog, also fixed to the stand. There were figures without any
ornaments. They were all dressed in a traditional Jewish costume,
painted or made of cloth decorated with real fur which was also used
to make a hat. When touched, the figures swayed thanks to wire
springs in their legs. Popular were also figures of Jews on moving
swings. After World War I I they disappeared from the fairs for many
years, and reappeared at Emaus in 1977.
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